Unintended Consequences
Canadian Prohibition in the Borderlands
Hillary Nanes
Niagara - 2024
The Prohibition in Canada, spanning from 1918-1920, marked a transformative period in Canadian history. Throughout the 20th century, beverages such as rye and beer were integral to the economy. However, a growing recognition of alcohol's effects began to spread in society, creating a shift in societal attitudes. Gradually, alcohol began to be viewed as the root cause of various social issues. This shift of perception led to the enactment of the prohibition laws in Canada, sparking a division within society. Differing opinions emerged regarding the efficiency of an outright ban on alcohol consumption.1 This essay aims to explore the impact the Lower Niagara River had on smuggling activities during the Prohibition, with a focus on the influential roles played by the temperance movement and the church. Despite implementing strict laws, there was a persistence of illegal activities. This essay will explore the illegal trade of alcohol, enforcement efforts, and the role revenue cutters play in reducing smuggling activities. Canada's prohibition movement failed to effectively address underlying societal issues which thus underscored its inadequacy in fostering the desired social transformation.
In the early 20th century Canadian society's awareness of the effects of alcohol consumption grew, various organizations emerged to address the issue. Initially, the temperance movement focused on moral persuasion through lectures, campaigns, and pledge signings to encourage the public to resist alcohol temptation.2 However, advocates quickly acknowledged that increases in alcohol sales outpaced their efforts. This realization prompted a shift within the movement towards advocating for legislative measures to entirely prohibit the sale of alcohol. Temperance advocates had believed that by removing legal access to alcohol it would present a more effective and enduring solution to the challenges faced by its consumption.3 The shift in efforts from legislation to prohibition highlights the evolving understanding among temperance advocates that systemic reforms and law enforcement was essential to effectively achieve their objectives.
The emergence of the Gospel Temperance Movement founded by Francis Murphy, was a pivotal offshoot in the evolution of the temperance movement. Based on the Christian principles of love and moral guidance, the Gospel Temperance Movement offered a more compassionate approach to help those struggling with alcoholism. Francis used his own struggles with alcohol to build connections with others who battled the addiction, gaining more support for the movement in the process. By utilizing personalized experiences in his messaging, Murphy became a person of hope and support to many contemporaries. Unlike other temperance groups, Murphy resisted attacking liquor vendors, and chose instead to direct his efforts to those struggling with alcoholism.4 Murphy's lectures were often welcomed within churches, where he employed Christian lifestyle and values as a significant argument for prohibition.5 While Murphy's efforts marked a significant attempt to campaign against alcohol, they fell short of ending alcohol consumption in the nation. However, Murphy was able to provide aid to many individuals struggling with addiction. Murphy's journey underscored the inherent limitations of relying solely on moral persuasion and religious beliefs to tackle societal challenges. The realization of such pitfalls within the temperance movement marked a crucial moment, as organizers in the movement shifted their focus on moral efforts in combination with a broader pursuit of legal reforms.
Figure 1: An advertisement encouraging temperance
As Christianity had emerged as a profound influence on the push for prohibition, societal concerns about family welfare emerged as another reason for advocating against alcohol consumption. During this era, there was an increasing belief that alcohol intake served as a primary reason for societal issues including crime and impoverishment. This perception stemmed from the increase in arrests and convictions for public intoxication, revealing drinkers as not merely individuals who were indulging in alcohol, but as societal outcasts labeled as criminals. Individuals who consumed alcohol were perceived as, "criminals, they were viewed as weak, lacking self-control, and sinful".6 Greg Marquis created a list of ways alcohol was perceived to impact families in his article "Alcohol and the Family in Canada". One concern noted by Marquis was the financial strain caused by the expense of alcohol, which limited financial resources for family necessities. Figure 1 depict an advertisement during the prohibition period which questioned where one's money should go, towards a saloon keeper or the family. 7 Advertisements such as Figure 1. depicted necessities one could buy with their money, compared to the daily expense of drinking. Marquis argued that alcohol consumption led to shorter lifespans, heightened rates of absenteeism, and an impact on both family well-being and the broader economy.8
While concerns surrounding alcohol consumption prompted the implementation of Prohibition, the achievement of long-term legislative change proved to be a challenge for the temperance movement, as laws aimed to reduce widespread drinking habits were seldom passed. The prohibition had caused the opposite effects and increased illegal trades especially between Niagara Falls and Buffalo New York. Consequently, as prohibition took effect the city of Buffalo New York emerged as a hot spot for homebrewing activities. It became commonplace for households to meet regularly for homebrewing sessions. The increase in homebrewing, contributed to the illegal alcohol trade to Niagara Falls, Canada. However, amateur homebrewers faced toxicity issues during the production process that resulted in instances where permanent damage to individual's health and some deaths occurred.9 Tragic outcomes from botched homebrewing attempts highlight the prohibition movements\' failure to effectively address underlying societal problems. Rather than creating an era of improved public health and social order, the prohibition of alcohol increased illegal activities, decreased societal respect and reduced general adherence to the laws. Furthermore, the smuggling of alcohol into Canada significantly increased illegal trade, which revealed the challenges faced by law enforcement and the societal consequences of the prohibition's shortcomings. Such disparities underscored the inherent limitations of relying solely on legal measures to create meaningful societal change.
Figure 2: An image from a police raid, finding barrels of home-brewed alcohol
In response to the increase in illicit activities, law enforcement launched aggressive raids on homes, pictured in Figure 2.10 Raids were frequently conducted by dry agents, who were specially appointed officers tasked to enforce prohibition laws to combat homebrewing. An instance of such enforcement occurred in Buffalo, New York wherein prohibition agents discovered a fully operational brewery with "a heater, filter, a gas gauge, fermenting, equipment filled with beer, and an additional 24.5 barrels of beer".11 Similar raids often targeted specific properties in Buffalo and Niagara Falls due to their proximity to the Canadian border and high potential for cross-border smuggling.12 Despite the efforts of law enforcement to restrict illicit consumption, the continued existence of home brewers and distillers demonstrated the ongoing challenge of enforcing Prohibition legislation. The public's commitment to taking extensive measures around the law to consume alcohol highlighted the ineffectiveness of prohibition's legal framework and demonstrated the unintended consequences such laws had on society.
As local law enforcement attempted to reduce alcohol production and consumption by combating smuggling activities, violence escalated along the Canadian American border. Authorities witnessed an increase in deadly gunfights and shipwrecks related to alcohol smuggling and gang activity. Tradgedies such as the case wherein a Buffalo police officer accidently shot his own son involved in smuggling operations, served as an important reminder of the risks inherent in illegal activities.13 The border tension further intensified with increased deployment of armed forces, specifically by the U.S. This entailed the assertion of the right to search, fire upon, and pursue suspected liquor smugglers. However the presence of the military caused an increase in supremacy violations and border tensions.14 To address the escalating crisis, the U.S. government convened the Ottawa Conference in 1923. This conference aimed to strengthen law enforcement efforts by granting authorities the power to search and seize vehicles that were suspected of smuggling. However, securing cooperation from Canada proved challenging due to Canada's divergent views on liquor law and apprehensions regarding the involvement of American enforcement agencies.15
In response to the escalating violence, the Canadian government implemented a permit system for alcohol traders. Under this system, traders were mandated to obtain permits and create bonds equivalent to double the monetary value of excise taxes and duties. This move aimed to regulate alcohol trade and strengthen government revenues by increasing Canadian tax profits. The adoption of such strict measures underscores the challenges in enforcing prohibition laws. The surge in violence along the border exposed the inherent limitations of law enforcement in effectively reducing smuggling activities. Consequently, the government's persistent struggle against illegal practices and difficulties in enforcement illustrates the failure to effect the desired social change.16
Figure 3: Map of peace bridge between Niagara and Buffalo
However, despite the implementation of the permit system, it proved to be a flawed attempt, it was ineffective by those determined to exploit the law. The exploitation of loopholes within the system, enabled smuggler to take advantage of the flawed permit system. Smugglers manipulated authorities by falsely declaring their intent to transport alcohol to Mexico or the Caribbean, only to divert their course towards the United States for illegal sales. Fake records were used to trick enforcement agencies into falling for their schemes. Such smuggling schemes were often centered around the Niagara Region, particularly the Peace Bridge, which served as a pivotal course for smugglers. This strategic bridge linked Fort Erie and Buffalo creating an easy access between smugglers and their customers.17 Figure 3 shows the map of the direct connection and highlights the Peace bridge to provide a visual understanding.18 Smugglers often took measures such as bringing alcohol through their cars by removing seats for alcohol. They also made profits from Fort Erie farmers who would rent out their barns to be used by smugglers storage areas for liquor. These operations underscored the resourcefulness and determination of smugglers to exploit enforcement efforts and continued the illegal alcohol trade.
Eventually, a growing realization grew upon society regarding the inherent flaws of the prohibition movement. In 1923, six thousand men, specifically legionnaires and Canadian Veterans, marched at Niagara Falls to advocate for change in temperance promotion. On this day, Senator Wadsworth made a notable critique of the prohibition, stating "the present system is not accomplishing what its designers expected of it... is fearfully demoralizing and tending to underline respect for law and our political institutions". 19 Senator Wadsworth emphasized that achieving temperance could not be accomplished through forcing total abstinence on thousands of people.20 His critique highlighted the critical flaws in the design of the prohibition movement and emphasized the negative impact of prohibition on social attitudes. Wadsworth's speech served as a significant moment revealing that society was aware that the prohibition movement was flawed and insufficient in addressing the challenges it produced. Such a realization prompted a growing awareness of the need for a more effective approach to addressing societal issues such as crime and alcoholism that temperance brought to the forefront of local life.
In the postwar era, government policymaking shifted in focus away from familial concerns which caused resistance in the temperance movement's efforts to challenge societal norms. The wartime environment had contributed to a rise in alcohol consumption, exposing young men to frequent drinking. With the return of economic prosperity post-war, it played a significant role in reversing the prohibition. However, government focus remained primarily focused on wartime priorities, leading to the implementation of alcohol regulations aimed at maintaining societal stability. Consequently, the liquor industry took such an opportunity to advertise and normalize drinking behaviors.21 The consequences of this shift in normalization underscored the broader social changes that characterized the post-war period. The transition from wartime restrictions to postwar stability with normalization of alcohol consumption, emphasized the interplay between government priorities and societal values.
Following the repeal of prohibition, negative perceptions of alcohol persisted. In 1923, Dr. Colvin had addressed the prohibition party, highlighting that the repeal had led to the "the alcoholizing of vast numbers of women".22 Dr. Colvin explains that this former evil is now moving towards women and girls, especially the youth. He explains that the big problem with this was that with the recovery of depression, he urged for clear brains and alertness. He warned that the normalization of drinking could impact this recovery process. This insight from Dr. Colvin sheds light on the multifaceted implications of the postwar normalization of alcohol consumption. Revealing its ramifications on societal well-being and mental acuity during a crucial period of recovery.23
Canada continued to normalize the consumption of alcohol and in 1927, the Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) was established with the objective of controlling public liquor consumption. The Liquor Control Act had derived from concerns of the morally issued saloons. LCBO's objective was to achieve bureaucratic objectivity in overseeing the sale of alcohol. However challenges were encountered in the early stages of establishing a rationalized system.24 Post-prohibition, LCBO prioritized promoting moderate public drinking, guided by moral principles, family-centric values, and the welfare of the community at large. This reinforced the understanding that LCBO was aimed to be a rational regulator rather than a tool for political patronage.25 The board aimed to depart from the past patronage system and establish norms for the future of alcohol consumption. Such a departure from past methods marked a significant deviation from the province\'s prohibition and temperance movements and instead the new approach aimed to address the social issues associated with saloons by introducing a structured and controlled approach to alcohol sale. This was a significant moment urging the public to help reshape reasonable and responsible drinking norms in post-prohibition Ontario.
In conclusion, the Prohibition movement from 1918-1920, marked a transformative period in Canadian history, which aimed to address societal concerns. However, the inadequacies of prohibition caused the movement to fail to effectively achieve the goals of improving social conditions. Prohibition was implemented with noble intentions rooted in familial and religious concerns however in practice prohibition laws impacted the respect for legal authority and resulted in desperate individuals to exploiting loopholes in alcohol regulation, causing more harm than good. While the government and law enforcement attempted to create more laws to tackle this issue, they were unable to implement the law effectively. In retrospect, the prohibition movement in Canada failed to bring about the desired social change. The Prohibition period in Canada and the United States revealed inherent flaws regulatory design, enforcement challenges, and unintended consequences of increased illegal activities. The shift towards post-prohibition policies and the establishment of regulatory bodies like the LCBO marked a new chapter in addressing alcohol-related concerns, which resulted in a more balanced and controlled approach to alcohol consumption in Canadian society.
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A.J Birell, "D.I.K. Rine and the Gospel Temperance Movement in Canada," The Canadian historical review 58, no. 1 (1977): 23 ↩
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Greg Marquis, "Alcohol and the Family in Canada" Journal of family history 29, no. 3 (2004): 310 ↩
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Figure 1. By. "[What Is Progressivism?](https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/what-is-progressivism%20()" Tablet Magazine, (accessed Feb. 1, 2024). ↩
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Marquis, 313 ↩
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Timothy Olewniczak, "GIGGLE WATER ON THE MIGHTY NIAGARA." Pennsylvania History, vol. 78, no. 1, (2011): 48 ↩
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Figure 2. Deborah Blum, "The Little-Told Story of How the U.S. Government Poisoned Alcohol during Prohibition.," Slate Magazine, February 19, 2010. ↩
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Olewniczak, 46 ↩
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Olewniczak, 56 ↩
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William H. Siener, "A Barricade of Ships, Guns, Airplanes and Men': Arming the Niagara Border, 1920-1930" The American review of Canadian studies 38, no. 4 (2008): 438. ↩
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Olewniczak, 41 ↩
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Olewniczak, 42 ↩
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Figure 3. "Peace Bridge: GSA Is Second Federal Agency to Consider Moving Truck Traffic." With
All Due Respect, (Accessed Jan. 31, 2024). ↩
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"CANADIANS PARADE WITH STATE LEGION: Six Thousand Men March at Niagara Falls" The New York Times. 1926. ↩
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"CANADIANS PARADE WITH STATE LEGION: Six Thousand Men March at Niagara Falls" The New York Times. 1926. ↩
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"REPEAL ATTACKED BY DRYS' KEYNOTER: It Is 'Alcoholizing Vast Numbers of Women" New York Times (1923-), 1936, 9. ↩
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"REPEAL ATTACKED BY DRYS' KEYNOTER: It Is 'Alcoholizing Vast Numbers of Women" New York Times (1923-), 1936, 9. ↩
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Dan Malleck, "The Bureaucratization of Moral Regulation: The LCBO and (Not-So) Standard Hotel Licensing in Niagara, 1927-1944" Histoire Sociale 38, no. 75 (2005): 59 ↩