Striking for Change:

Labour Strikes Along the Buffalo Waterfront in the 19th Century

Sarah Smart

Buffalo - 2025

The nineteenth century was an era of extreme economic and industrious expansion in the United States. Technological innovations paired with mass immigration to the United States during this period contributed to the Industrial Revolution, transforming major port cities into industrial, manufacturing centers. Buffalo was a booming port city which relied heavily on the grain industry for its economy as the successful grain production industry created jobs while encouraging, and supporting immigration from countries such as Ireland, Poland and Sweden. In addition, the implementation of technologies, specifically the grain elevator, along the waterfront created dangerous working environments that meant less job security as the elevators worked more efficiently than manpower. As a result, workers' unions like the International Longshoreman's Association (ILA) were formed to ensure equitable working conditions for dock workers along the Great Lakes. However, labour reform was not solidified overnight. Strikes and violence occurred as dock workers became increasingly adamant about better conditions. Violence corrupted the docks of Buffalo as police presence increased with the continuation of strikes and hostility along the waterfront. Notably, without the collaborative effort of maritime workers in Buffalo, the success of the Longshoreman Association would not have been possible and still present today. The following paper argues that labour strikes which took place along the Buffalo waterfront in the nineteenth century demonstrated the willingness of workers to protect themselves during a time of rapid industrial expansion which led to the organization of protective laws for maritime workers.

Like most of the United States, Buffalo experienced an extreme industrial expansion in the early stages of the nineteenth century. During the years of the American Civil War, Buffalo experienced an economic boom which led to the city becoming a thriving industrial center in the United States.¹ In a span of just thirty years, Buffalo almost tripled its population as it went from having a population of 117,714 people in 1870, to 352,387 people by 1900.² Buffalo continued to grow from a small trading center to a large industrial port while increasing opportunities for unskilled labour.

The Buffalo waterfront provided jobs for dock workers to load and unload cargo. As the nation's leading industry in grain production, the grain industry itself relied on the Port of Buffalo and its grain terminals for its economy.³ Irish, Polish, and Swedish men immigrated to Buffalo looking for work as unskilled factory workers or they would scatter themselves along the docks of Buffalo and around factories near the waterfront. The most common job performed by unskilled labourers at the ports was grain shoveling. Grain shovellers would load and unload grain from ships as they arrived at port. Workers would swarm the wharf as ships arrived at docks and captains would hire those that were needed for that particular day.⁴ Naturally, as the population of Buffalo rapidly increased, the job competition increased as well. As a ship pulled into port at Buffalo, the captain of that ship would hire a select group of men at the port to unload the ship's cargo. However, more men would swarm the Buffalo docks than there were jobs available. As a result, work was sparse for many since captains would only hire as many people as they needed. Hostility and violence grew on the docks of Buffalo as lack of job options and security became a pressing issue. Some of the key concerns of dock workers was the seasonal nature of employment as ships would only come into port during the months of the year when the Great Lakes were not frozen. As well, growing technological advancements such as grain elevators were being implemented across Buffalo. Workers demanded solutions for better wages and job security, sparking leaders in the dock industry to suggest changes.

A suggested change for the dock industry was to incorporate a contract system for workers. One of the leaders in the maritime dock industry was William J. Conners, a former seaman and longshoreman who owned a dockside saloon in Buffalo and proposed a contract system for dock workers.⁵ Conners argued that his contract system would support job security in this unsecure line of work. This idea would ensure that grain rates would be set by a contract, and captains of ships would no longer have to make their own arrangements when they docked at port.⁶ Conner's contract system may have been beneficial for the efficiency of loading and unloading boats but was still not an improvement for the workers who now experienced wage cuts. Dock workers were no longer paid for the hours they spent waiting on the docks, but now only for the hours they spent shoveling grain. In addition, part of their wages was now being given to both their bosses and the contractors of the jobs.⁷ Many workers along the waterfront shared feelings of being trapped in an exploitative labour system which consumed every part of a grain-shoveler's life and chose to opt out of the contract system altogether.⁸

In addition to working conditions, dock workers also lived in exploitive and unfavourable boarding houses. Limited options were available for Buffalo dock workers regarding bed and board. Grain shovellers lived in a boarding saloon system which was exploitative and skewed for the benefit of saloon owners.⁹ This was a system that provided shelter and food for maritime workers that were in need. However, it also provided an abundance of alcohol for thirsty and over-worked labourers. Alcohol was a stress-relieving outlet for many weary workers which allowed the saloon system to easily take advantage of their customers. Saloon owners could knowingly feed their customers, including dock workers, more alcohol than they could afford, resulting in these men being in debt to the saloon. This environment created a continuous pattern of debt and repayment. This only added to the hostile environment along the Buffalo waterfront as it was an endless cycle of exploitative labour and drunken nights for workers.

Dissatisfaction and dangers along the Buffalo waterfront only grew with the development of the city's grain industry. Strikes began to plague Buffalo docks in the 1820s, as dock workers violently gained the public's attention by going on strike as economic fluctuations impacted workers. By 1842, the grain elevator was invented in Buffalo and quickly introduced to Buffalo waterfronts.¹⁰ Grain elevators were large devices which rapidly increased the movement of grain to be shipped at the Buffalo harbours. The implementation of these devices, however, impacted on labour opportunities. In 1862, an article in the New York Times stated that dock workers felt that the grain elevator was a capitalist invention which took away honest labour from hard-working men.¹¹ The spirit of grain shovellers was diminishing as the waterfront community began to have a sense of its own rights but felt like they were being taken advantage of.¹² Tensions grew as dock workers were increasingly unsatisfied with their paychecks which were being cut and distributed to both their bosses and the businessmen making their contracts. Overall, this resulted in the waterfront becoming a violent setting where fights were a frequent occurrence, and where some men were robbed, kidnapped, and even killed.¹³

Buffalonian dock workers began to take the matters of their unfavourable working conditions into their own hands. Workers formed protective unions which included participating in walkout strikes and advocating for labour rights. The protective unions held meetings, arguing that the grain elevators contributed to hazardous air quality which was life threatening to workers on the docks.¹⁴ Many strikers asked for better job security over anything else because as long as grain elevators continued to be put along the waterfront, workers would continue to lose their jobs. Many workers also opposed the contract system and demanded a return to the old wage system.¹⁵ Some workers even swore an oath that they would never work under a contract system ever again.¹⁶ Additionally, dock workers could only secure work during the warm months of the year because Buffalo harbours would freeze in the winter. All these factors combined led to increased hostility and anger among dock workers who wanted better job security.

The nineteenth century focused on efficiency and organization regarding expansion and technological advancements.¹⁷ Nonetheless, dockworkers emphasized their importance as honest labourers by taking stands against the ideas of contracted labour and grain shoveling technologies which only meant workers were compensated less and were put at risk of being out of a job. In 1870, the first official longshoreman union was formed in New York titled the Longshoremen's Union protective Association (LUPA) which changed its name to the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA) by 1895 to better reflect the union members across both the United States and Canada. The Longshoremen's Union would hold mass marching parades which attracted large crowds near the waterfront where police would follow and intervene if there was any violence.¹⁸ As the strikes persisted, some ships resorted to unloading at different ports to avoid the crowds and labour disruptions in Buffalo.¹⁹ Buffalonians were worried their reputation as a port city would be tarnished as ships took their business elsewhere. Towards the end of the strikes, union members began to lose the support of the public and the support of fellow dock workers.²⁰ Despite this, news outlets like the New York Times continued to support striking grain shovellers while avoiding rivalry with other news outlets that did not support the dock workers on strike.²¹ The Longshoremen Union became a stable and dependable labour force and was evidence that workers need to work collectively to achieve better job security and more equitable working conditions.

Between the years 1893 and 1894, there was a record high level of strike activity along the waterfront.²² The Buffalo waterfront strikers were gaining attention and support from the public. Buffalo temperance leaders supported the local strikers and publicly opposed the control the saloon system had on the docks. Buffalo's Bishop Quigley was a leader and guiding voice for dock strikers as temperance ideals were a major factor in the establishment of a sense of worth along the waterfront.²³ Other Buffalo temperance leaders in the community actively showed their support of dock strikers by frequently attending their labour meetings.²⁴ The involvement of the saloon system within the dock workers community is difficult to overestimate as the saloons were very much in control of the dockside wards in Buffalo. However, ideals of temperance were major factors for strikers to gain sympathy from the community because alcohol consumption was a key social issue for many religious people and leaders. The outstanding community support helped strikers by providing food and shelter to many in need. Overall, the favorable community opinion of the dock strikers supported their position of gaining better working conditions, job security, and better wages.

Hostility continued to prevail along the waterfront as strikers found themselves being replaced with new workers by their employers.²⁵ When some strikers decided to return to work, they were told they could not work without a contract card issued by Conners, the man who devised the contract system.²⁶ Tension flared between Conners' contract workers and strikers, resulting in a continuation of strikes which broke into labour riots. Very quickly the police became involved in almost every aspect of labour disputes, including breaking up workers meetings and being present on the strike picket lines.²⁷ Essentially, Buffalo police worked to diffuse labour problems before they turned into violent riots as swiftly as possible. In the spring of 1899, police would be present at the waterfront anytime there would be an anticipated labour riot.²⁸ The police freely made arrests in an attempt to control labour riots and would be present even at peaceful labour disputes to intervene as it was assumed any labour strike activities would cause trouble.²⁹ The sons of grain strikers would get involved in labour strikes along the waterfront as well by protesting in their own ways by taunting police.³⁰ Additionally, angry women supported waterfront strikes by banding together and attacking policemen in large numbers..³¹ Figure 1 demonstrates the mass turnout of grain shovellers striking in protest of the saloon system and Conners contract system which cut large portions of their pay checks.³² Workers and strikers often took their frustrations out on the police as many believed that the control the police had on diffusing strikes only contributed to the building of capitalist, industrial societies.³³

Moreover, the legacy of the International Longshoremen's Association continues as the largest union of maritime workers in North America with over 80,000 union members. Figure 2 demonstrates the lasting impact the International Longshoremen's Association has had on labour workers in the 21st century.³⁴ The International Longshoremen's Association has grown into a modern union which stands up to 21st century labour disputes in North America.

In conclusion, labour problems were one of the most pressing social and economic issues of the nineteenth century. Strikes along the Buffalo waterfront are evidence of a push for better working conditions and job security in an era of extreme expansion and immigration to the United States. Buffalo became one of the most important cities to the Great Lakes as geographic and economic shifts provided more jobs along the Buffalo docks.³⁵ Dock workers in Buffalo protested and protected their rights to healthy and equitable working conditions and job security. The community of Buffalo was involved with the labour disputes as the police were present at strikes, newspaper outlets published stories about these efforts, and community members came together to support strikers by providing food and shelter. The impact of Buffalo dock strikes has been everlasting as the strikers contributed to the formation of the International Longshoreman's Union which has become the largest union to protect maritime dock workers in North America.